America & Imperialism

Historian Paul Kennedy has called the emergence of the U.S. as player on world stage the most decisive change in late 19th century. America saw herself with a "special moral endowment" and felt justified in projecting influence beyond her borders. Americans still avoid "entangling alliances" but feel free to get more actively involved

The Spanish-American War was a brief conflict won handily by the united States over an inept Spanish army and navy. Thanks to the encouragement of expansionists and the reckless behavior of the yellow press, Americans enthusiastically supported the war. Many young men volunteered, but the regular U.S. Army, which had done little but fight Indians since the Civil war, was ill prepared to manage the fighting.

The Navy, on the other hand, was in good trim, having been built up beginning with the Harrison administration in response to the writings of Mahan and the support of other "navalists" like Theodore Roosevelt. The Navy foguht well from the beginning when Commodore Dewey destroyed the Spanish fleet in Manila Bay in the Philippines, and was continued when Admirals Sampson and Schley defeated another Spanish fleet off the coast of Cuba. Although plagues by inefficiency, disease and disorder, the Army, bolstered by volunteers such as the famous "Rough Riders," fought bravely enough to defeat a hapless Spanish army near Santiago. American tropps also occupied Puerto Rico. The Treaty of Paris that ended the war granted independence to Cuba; Spain turned over Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippine Islands to the United States, for which the U.S. paid $20 million to Spain.

The "Splendid Little War" lasted only four months, the fighting itself only weeks. African American soldiers, many of them veterans of the Indian wars with the 9^th and 10^th cavalry, played a vital role for the Americans and contributed to the victory. The presence of Black troops in camps and departure areas in the Southern states caused several incidents in which the troops reacted against discriminatory policies.

Thanks to Dewey's victory in Manila, American military forces occupied the Philippine Islands. Philippine revolutionary Emilio Aguinaldo refused to exchange Spanish occupation for American and continued his insurrection against the new American "invaders." The result was one of the ugliest wars in American history, and the war and the annexation of the Philippines created a large controversy over America's role as an imperial power. Imperialists argued that the U.S. had a duty to help civilize and control the underdeveloped parts of the world, but Anti-Imperialist League was founded that opposed America's acquisition of colonies as anti-democratic and destructive of American ideals. The result of the debate and the ugly Philippine insurrection was that the U.S. promised eventual independence to the Philippines and also eventually allowed Puerto Rico to determine its own destiny, which is still being decided.

American interest in the Hawaiian Islands goes back to post-revolutionary days when American traders first started traversing the Pacific. Hawaii was a convenient stopping-off place for ships bound for China and Japan. American missionaries arrived in the islands in the early 19^th century, and the scenery, climate and valuable crops like sugar and fruits attracted attention. Although for several decades the United States did not make any move to annex or otherwise control Hawaii, American policy consistently sought to keep others from extending their influence over the islands.

As the increased use of from steam powered, steel-hulled ships stimulated international trade, and as industrialization created a need for both new markets and new sources of raw materials, the interests of America and points beyond her shores continued to grow, and Hawaii was one of the focal points of that interest. Continued contact with Hawaii led to a treaty of reciprocity in 1875 which benefited both United States and the islands. in the 1880s the treaty was renewed and eventually American rights to establish a naval base at Pearl Harbor were included. By that time the interests of American whites in gaining control Hawaii had accelerated to the point where the native government of Polynesians found itself engaged in a struggle with Anglo-Americans. American money was used to purchase larger tracts of land in the islands until by 1890 the Americans controlled two thirds of all land in Hawaii.

Changes in American tariff laws brought losses to whole eye and planters and place them in a position where only annexation to the United States could guarantee them financial success. In 1891 Queen Liliuokalani, a strong Hawaiian nationalist, acceded to the throne. An educated woman, (she wrote “Aloha Oe”) she claimed that “Hawaii is for the Hawaiians!” and opposed political reforms. In January 1893 a white citizens’ revolt was led by Sanford Dole, who formed a “Committee of Safety” with the intent of overthrowing the native government. U.S. diplomat Stevens, the consul in Hawaii, violated Hawaiian and international laws by improperly ordering U.S. Marines ashore from a warship, threatening the government. the Marines set up shop across and royal palace and the Queen was pressured into entering negotiations with the white revolutionaries. In the end Sandford Dole became the president of a new provisional government for Hawaii.

During the last days of President Benjamin Harrison's administration a hastily dispatched annexation treaty which had just arrived in Washington was forwarded to the Senate by the president. Senate Democrats block passage of the treaty and things stood that way when President Grover Cleveland commenced his second term in 1893. President Cleveland sent an investigating body to Hawaii which revealed the wrongdoing of Americans in the overthrow of the Hawaiian government. Cleveland withdrew the annexation treaty and tried to restore Queen Liliuokalani to the throne, but the provisional government refused to step down and Cleveland was unwilling to use force in the matter. Nevertheless U.S. Marines were withdrawn, President Cleveland refused to resubmit the treaty and the nation's attention turned toward Cuba.

During the Spanish-American war in which Admiral Dewey's fleet engaged the Spanish fleet in Manila Harbor in the Philippine Islands, then had to cruise around South America to join the activity off the coast of Cuba, the strategic significance of Hawaii once again rose to the fore. present the McKinley negotiated a new treaty of annexation but because of anti-imperialist sentiment the treaty was able to get a two thirds approval in United States Senate. the annexationist got around that by passing a joint resolution of Congress, which required only a majority vote in both houses, and annexed Hawaii in 1898. Hawaii became the 49th state of the United States in 1959.

1842 Secretary of State Daniel Webster recognizes the importance of Hawaii for the United States. Native Hawaiians want to resist foreign intervention and see the U.S. as an ally in that effort. The U.S. makes no attempt to annex Hawaii, but rejects foreign influence.
1843 A British naval officer attempts annexation of Hawaii but his efforts are disavowed.
1848 After territory is added from the Mexican War, including California, Hawaii becomes even more important.
1849 The U.S. formally recognizes Hawaiian independence, talk of annexation starts but comes to nothing.
1875 The U.S. signs a reciprocity trade treaty with Hawaii which admits Hawaiian sugar to the U.S. duty free. Under the terms of the treaty no Hawaiian territory is to be disposed of to a third party.
1884 Reciprocity Treaty renewed.
1887 Rights to naval base at Pearl Harbor added to the agreement between the U.S. and Hawaii.
1887 A revolution of white (mostly American) planters forces Hawaiian King Kalakua to create a constitutional government which becomes dominated by minority white Americans.
1890 The McKinley Tariff ends the favorable sugar trade situation for Hawaii, resulting in large losses for American planters.
An annexation treaty is hastily sent to Washington and then submitted to the Senate by President Harrison, but is blocked by Democrats in the Senate.
1893 President Cleveland's investigation reveals wrongdoing by Americans in the overthrow of Queen Liliuokalani.
1894 On July 4 the Republic of Hawaii is proclaimed and is recognized by the U.S.
1898 Spanish-American War shines new light on Hawaii. The U.S. annexes Hawaii by a joint resolution of Congress, approved by President McKinley July 7, accepted by Congress in August.
1900 Hawaii officially becomes a U.S. territory June 14.

The Open Door

In 1900 Secretary of State John Hay announced what became known as the “Open Door” policy with regard to China. His intention was that no European nation was to create a sphere of influence in China to the exclusion of other nations. America is once again willing to look outward and intervene overseas to further her own economic and political interests.

The U.S. occupied Puerto Rico with a force under General Miles in 1898. The Foraker Act of 1900 attached Puerto Rico as unincorporated territory with an elective legislature, governor and council appointed by the President. In 1909 a split developed between an independence movement and supporters of U.S. statehood. The 1917 Jones Act created Puerto Rico as an “organized but unincorporated territory.” Puerto Ricans were granted U.S. citizenship. Modifications to laws gave Puerto Ricans the right to elect their own governor in 1947. Puerto Rico is now “free” but must obey the U.S. Constitution. In 1952 the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico wais established: statehood and independence options are still available and under debate at the present time (2006.)

Guam had a naval officer as governor until World War II. In 1950 Guam was organized as a territory and has one delegate to Congress.

Cuba was occupied by the United States following the Spanish-American War. Reforms were initiated in Public Administration and Public Health. Health agencies were directed by General Leonard Wood. Doctors Walter Reed and William Gorgas exterminated yellow fever in Cuba and pushed education and other reforms. A constitutional convention was called in 1900 to set up a Cuban government, and Americans withdrew in 1902. As part of the legislation at the end of the war the Platt Amendment was added which placed certain restrictions on Cuba:

The Panama Canal. The Spanish-American War showed the need for an isthmian canal. Various issues had to be addressed: